Historically speaking, Britain is used to acting on their own accord, using their status as a worldwide powerhouse to their advantage. The UK had only become involved with Europe in 1973; at this point in time, the European Union (EU) had not yet been formed and its predecessor was more or less formed on an economic basis. However, this relatively short British stint allotted to European unity ultimately ended with the vote to leave by UK citizens in the 2016 EU Referendum; this decision is commonly referred to as Brexit. The combination of the four countries which make up the UK resulted in a 51.9% majority vote for Brexit, despite the majority of Scotland and Northern Ireland voting to stay (BBC, 2020). As England made up for nearly 85% of the votes, this essay will generally refer to English nationalism as opposed to UK nationalism.
One must ask: why would the majority of English citizens vote to leave the EU? There are many reasons for this, including anti-immigration sentiment, often by the working class, the upper class’ need to keep power and the general belief in British (more specifically, English) superiority - in culture, politics and general life. Although the former two arguments are strongly cited in supporting Brexit, I would argue the latter is the most dominant force behind the vote. English nationalism has extended back throughout history, from the British empire and imperialism to Britain’s finest hour during World War II. The focus of this essay is the nationalism that resulted from WWII and the events which transpired. Undoubtedly, the connection between the second world war and Brexit may be considered a leap - both in a literal sense regarding time and a metaphorical sense in the relation between the two. Therefore, I must ask: how did WWII contribute to English nationalism and the vote for Brexit?
I will start with a quote from Jose Harris, who describes the outlook of WWII from a British perspective:
“The war is widely regarded as perhaps the only period in the whole of British history during which the British people came together as a metaphysical entity: an entity which transcended the divisions of class, sect, self-interest and libertarian individualism that normally constitute the highly pluralist and fragmented structure of British society” (1992, pg. 17).
The extent to which this is true can be widely debated, as grouping an entire population into one feeling can be harmful and lead to categorizations which should be avoided. However, this excerpt shows the perception of British unity during the war, which can be supported by the common evacuation, rationing, industrialization, reconstruction and bombardment that were felt by all citizens (Harris, 1992). Regardless of social constructs, British citizens were subject to the same restrictions, bringing people together in a new way. The sacrifices that everyone made sprung up a sense of unity among their respective communities, and, in a larger sense, the nation itself. Of course, the togetherness described is one which has been glorified since the war; often as time progresses, feelings and descriptions become less and less accurate. The common British opinion is commonly portrayed by “authors [who] have worked hard to represent the past with an eye firmly on personality and moods, fears and hope, and shared beliefs” (Malcolmson, 2021, pg. 59). Although these reflections may range in credibility because of the appeal to certain emotions, I do believe that the overall attitude of English citizens on the war was one of unity.
The nationalism that stemmed from this struggle was largely due to the Battle of Britain and the blitzkrieg from 1940-41. The blitz was the common bombing that the German air force, or Luftwaffe, took to against British cities, specifically London. This was preceded and overlapped by the Royal Air Force’s aerial fight against Nazi Germany in the Battle of Britain. Because of the previous collapse of allies to the Germans and America’s decision to not yet directly intervene, these years saw British forces face a strong German force by their lonesome. Despite the daunting task that lay ahead, British forces succeeded in holding the Germans off until they were given backup, in the form of powerhouses such as the United States. This period in the war led to the phrase “Britain’s finest hour” because of their ability to resist invasion and, in doing so, arguably save the world from prolonged Nazi domination.
Although people generally look to the frontline in times of war, people were doing their part back home as well. This is what led to feelings of nationalism- everyone was pulling their load for the war effort. During the fighting, “there were brief waves, or at least whiffs, of defeatism, though these were overpowered (mainly during the middle third of 1940) by deepening stoicism and a keen sense of national purpose” (Malcolmson, 2021, pg. 59). Each person was required to make sacrifices and place faith in their community that others would do the same. In addition to this neighborly trust, an even larger belief in the government was placed at the forefront of society. Although this faith may have been misplaced because of the general lack of parliamentary control during this time, it brought people together and led to a rise in popularity of both the parliament and the monarchy (Harris, 1992). However, the role in which people played during the war ironically led to the realization of a need for reformation, which led to the election of the Labour party following the war.
Although I have briefly described the nationalism that resulted from British war efforts during WWII, we must ask, how does this relate to Brexit? First of all, the simultaneous belief in the English government and the rights of the people played a large role in the EU Referendum voting. Looking back on the pro-Brexit force, “‘taking back control’ from the EU was widely regarded as a means of reinforcing parliamentary sovereignty, notably over national borders, but also, importantly, of legitimising popular sovereignty, of giving a voice to those who often feel unrepresented by their political leaders” (Bell, 2021, pg. 351). Many people believed that a vote for Brexit would give them more control over their nation. This view is a repeat of British politics during WWII - society hoped to gain more control during the potential reformation process. However, Boris Johnson, who appealed to pro-Brexit voters, has kept control in Parliament itself rather than distributing it to the people.
What the current prime minister has done is appeal to the anti-immigration sentiment shown by the working class, opting for a less international view of England. In fact, there has been a “constant reassertion [by Johnson] of the need for the UK ‘to take back control of its borders’” (Bell, 2021, pg. 357). This stems from feelings of English nationalism and the disregard for a diverse nation. There is a belief that “globalization…[has] degraded English nationalism by opening it up to global, and, specifically, European and US homogenization” (Black, 2019, pg. 196). This rather distasteful outlook is not new, as British immigrants have faced discrimination throughout their history, including during WWII. Many British residents of foreign descent were displaced and forced into internment camps during the fight. Today, immigration is an area in which Brexit hopes to reduce, bringing back a specifically British economy which will thrive under British citizens.
Although the UK was once the world's largest economic powerhouse, its financial status has deteriorated because of the decline of colonialism and the increasing independence of former British territories. However, the feelings of superiority among English citizens still remain, especially after their contributions to the second world war effort. Winston Churchill was one such culprit:
“In one interview, the former German Chancellor, Helmut Schmidt, stated that “Winston Churchill was a great European but he was quite clear that Britain was not joining [Europe] because it had the empire. But it’s gone, even though you think it still exists” (Elliott 2013). This is reflected in the imperial rhetoric of certain politicians who, when commenting upon “Brexit” negotiations, have highlighted the prospect of Britain creating an “Empire 2.0” in trade arrangements” (Black, 2019, pg. 194).
Although it is too early to be seen, the belief in England to act solely as an independent nation and resume their status as a top power because of Brexit is an optimistic view which echoes post-WWII. Corelli Barnett’s book The Audit of War explained how “the atmosphere of sentimental and uncritical moral solidarity induced by the war gave rise to wholly unrealistic, Utopian expectations of a post-war world…that led inexorably to Britain's post-war economic decline” (Harris, 1992, pg. 20). These similar post-Brexit expectations are cause for concern, as Brexit itself is only a symptom of nationalism (Bell, 2021, pg. 352). However, this pride has only recently come into such light, as England has been a European member for around half a century. Therefore, the true extent to which WWII itself has influenced withstanding nationalism must be questioned. Although I do believe that WWII has played a large role in current nationalism up to date, there are certainly other factors which must be examined and taken into account.
It is undeniable to argue that English nationalism resulted in the majority vote to leave the EU. Black explained this by stating, “for England, closer European integration has usually been discussed under a rhetoric of defeat, indeed, a concession to Europe of its sovereignty and a confirmation of its decline from global-power status” (2019, pg. 200). Now, I do not disagree with nationalism. However, one can be proud of their home country while also recognizing when your country disregards unity in favor of self-interest, therefore setting worldview interests aside. Nationalism should not be paired with a need for ultimate power, as England strives for through Brexit; instead, it should be pride in one’s heritage and culture. WWII gave Britain power because of unexpected and uncalled for circumstances in which the world watched on as they fought Hitler. However, this same war devastated the country and put them into financial hardship. The need for power and a strong sense of nationalism is often intertwined; we do not want another post-war financial situation or a common belief in superiority. For the world to become a better place, equality among all must be the goal we strive for and the outlook we all have.
To conclude, although the extent to which nationalism in WWII influenced Brexit cannot be physically tested, I think that the pride English citizens felt for their country during the war has translated into today’s society. Of course, the nation is completely different than it was 75 years ago, but similar sentiments can be passed on from generation to generation. Nationalism has, and will continue to, play a large role in the future of English, and British, society, especially in regards to their European relationships. This research has influenced my perspective on British society; although I do not personally agree with the decision to leave the EU, I try to balance both sides of the debate. World War II does give Britain cause to feel strongly about their nation; their involvement heavily influenced the outcome of the war and has helped push the world past one of our darkest hours. There is a fervor of unity in this country, which is very admirable. However, with that being said, I do lose a little respect for England because of their anti-immigration stance. As someone who has found a global perspective increasingly important, hence my decision to study abroad, I find the movement towards a less diverse nation appalling. I have found London to be an amazing place because of each individual community and hint of world culture that can be found here. However, it is crucial to recognize that each individual person has their own feelings regarding each separate situation, and I should not categorize all British citizens into one group. People have varying levels of nationalism and varying stances regarding Brexit.
References
BBC. (2020). EU referendum results. BBC News. Retrieved March 29, 2022, from https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/eu_referendum/results
Bell, E. (2021) Post-Brexit nationalism: challenging the British political tradition? Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 29:3, 351-367, DOI: 10.1080/14782804.2020.1750351
Black, J. (2019). From mood to movement: English nationalism, the European Union and taking back control. Innovation (Abingdon, England), 32(2), 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/13511610.2018.1520080
Harris, J. (1992). War and Social History: Britain and the Home Front during the Second World War. Contemporary European History, 1(1), 17–35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20081424
Malcolmson, R. (2021, Spring). Their finest hours? Queen's Quarterly, 128, 56-69. https://pluma.sjfc.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.pluma.sjfc.edu/magazines/their-finest-hours/docview/2503980683/se-2?accountid=27700
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